Training and practice of cytotechnologists: a discussion forum focused on Europe.

OBJECTIVES: To discuss the role and training of cytotechnologists (CTs) in Europe, to identify areas of good practice and to provide an informed opinion to those providing guidelines for training and practice in Europe. METHODS: All members of the Editorial Advisory Board of Cytopathology were invited to take part in a 'discussion forum' for which six topics were circulated in advance concerning the roles of CTs with regard to: (1) pre-screening slides; (2) 'signing out' reports; (3) carrying out ancillary techniques; (4) supervising laboratory staff; (5) taking part in rapid on-site evaluation (ROSE) of fine needle aspirates (FNAs); and (6) whether CTs were trained specifically in cytopathology or in general histopathology. Notes of the meeting were circulated by email and a final report was agreed by 22 participants from 17 predominantly European countries. RESULTS: Training for CTs throughout Europe was variable, especially for non-gynaecological cytology, which was inconsistent with the range of activities required. The participants recommended graduate entry, preliminary training in general laboratory technology, and subsequent training to take account of the probability and, in some centres, the reality of primary cervical cancer screening changing from cytology to human papillomavirus (HPV) testing. They further recommended that CTs should perform HPV tests and take part in ROSE for FNAs, and they supported the European Federation of Cytology Societies developing guidelines for training and practice. CONCLUSION: With CT training added to a university-based education in laboratory or biomedical science, a career in cytotechnology should be an attractive option involving a diverse range of laboratory and clinically based activities.

Nipple aspirate cytology and pathologic parameters predict residual cancer and nodal involvement after excisional breast biopsy.

We previously demonstrated that abnormal nipple aspirate fluid (NAF) cytology predicted residual breast cancer (RC) and tumour size after excisional biopsy (EB), although normal NAF cytology did not exclude RC. Tumour size correlates with the risk of lymph node (LN) metastases. LN metastases provide prognostic information allowing medical and radiation oncologists to determine the need for adjuvant therapy. We hypothesized that pathologic factors known after EB, combined with NAF cytology, would predict with a high degree of accuracy the presence of RC and LN spread. NAF cytology and pathologic parameters: tumour distance from biopsy margins, multifocal and multicentric disease, sub-type of ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) or invasive cancer (IC), grade of DCIS or IC, tumour and specimen size, tumour and biopsy cavity location, presence or absence of extensive DCIS, and biopsy scar distance from the nipple were evaluated bivariately and then by logistic regression (LR) for their association with RC and involved LN (> or = 1 (+) LN, useful to determine chemotherapy need, and > or = 4 (+) LN, useful to determine radiation need to the chest and axilla). Data were analysed using NAF cytology alone, pathologic parameters alone, and NAF cytology and pathologic parameters combined. The combined LR model was superior in predicting residual cancer (94%) to LR models using NAF cytology (36%) or pathologic parameters (75%) alone. When only subjects with normal NAF cytology were evaluated by LR, the model was 92% sensitive in predicting RC. Tumour size and NAF cytology predicted which patients had > or = 1 (+) LN, whereas tumour and specimen size predicted which patients had > or = 4 (+) LN. We propose an algorithm which, if confirmed in a larger study, may allow clinicians to be more selective in their recommendations of re-excision breast biopsy or mastectomy.

Extramedullary plasmacytoma confined to the choroid.

PURPOSE: To report a case of an extramedullary plasmacytoma confined to the choroid. METHODS: Interventional case report with cytopathologic correlation. RESULTS: A 76-year-old asymptomatic woman presented with 2 globular orange and amelanotic choroidal lesions in the right eye. Fine needle aspiration biopsy of one of the choroidal lesions followed by immunocytochemical studies revealed monoclonal plasma cells, diagnostic of plasmacytoma. Systemic evaluation was negative, except for increased serum gamma globulin with immunoglobulin kappa spike on electrophoresis. The patient was managed by ocular external beam radiotherapy. At 9 years follow-up, she was free of local disease and never developed multiple myeloma. CONCLUSION: Extramedullary plasmacytoma confined to the choroid is rare. It may present simulating other common amelanotic choroidal lesions. Fine needle aspiration biopsy and proper systemic evaluation are critical in establishing the diagnosis.

Differentiating large cell lymphoma from indolent small B-cell lymphoma in fine needle aspirates using p53, PCNA and transformed lymphocyte count.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the usefulness of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), p53 protein expression and transformed lymphocyte count (TLC) as adjunctive tests to differentiate indolent small B-cell lymphoma from large cell lymphoma in fine needle aspiration biopsies. STUDY DESIGN: Aspirates of lymphoproliferative disorders from April 1993 to January 1997 were reviewed. The percentage of TLCs was determined on the Papanicolaou smear. The percentage and intensity of p53 and PCNA immunocytochemical staining was evaluated on cell block sections. These results were compared and correlated with the final diagnoses based on available morphology, flow cytometry and clinical history. RESULTS: There were 40 cases of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and 12 reactive lymph nodes. Adequate cell blocks were available on 16 large cell lymphomas, 7 grade 1-2 follicular center cell lymphomas, 6 mucosal associated lymphoid tissue lymphomas, 2 small lymphocytic lymphomas and 2 mantle cell lymphomas. Average TLC and p53 nuclear staining was highest in large cell lymphomas (57% TLC and 24% p53), followed by grades 1 and 2 follicular lymphomas (14% TLC and 15% p53) and lowest in other indolent lymphomas (< 10% TLC and < 1% p53). Average PCNA staining was highest in large cell lymphomas (46%) and lowest in small lymphocytic lymphomas (7%); however, TLC was the best parameter for differentiating large cell lymphoma from indolent small B-cell lymphoma. CONCLUSION: TLC differentiated large cell lymphoma from indolent small B-cell lymphoma better than either p53 or PCNA alone or in combination. Significant overlap between categories limits usefulness of these immunocytochemical stains for differentiating these entities.

Choroidal metastasis as the initial manifestation of a pigmented neuroendocrine tumor.

We report the case of a 77-year-old woman in whom choroidal metastasis was the initial manifestation of a primary neoplasm presumed to be a pigmented pulmonary carcinoid tumor. The tumor initially was misdiagnosed cytologically and pathologically as a choroidal melanoma because it contained intrinsic melanin pigment. Positive immunoreactivity for cytokeratin, synaptophysin, chromogranin, and calcitonin and the presence of dense-core neurosecretory vesicles disclosed by electron microscopy established that the metastasis was a neuroendocrine tumor. Findings from systemic evaluation suggested that the primary tumor was located in the lung. The patient subsequently developed an intradural paraspinal metastasis, which also contained melanin pigment. The latter observation confirmed that the melanin in the uveal metastasis was intrinsic and did not represent secondary phagocytosis by tumor cells. Metastases from pigmented tumors of nonmelanocytic derivation are exceedingly rare but present a major diagnostic challenge to ocular pathologists and cytopathologists if the diagnosis is not suspected. Confirmatory immunohistochemical analysis should be obtained when a pigmented choroidal tumor thought to be a melanoma has atypical features. Arch Ophthalmol. 2000;118:841-845

Differential distribution of the neuron-associated class III beta-tubulin in neuroendocrine lung tumors.

OBJECTIVE: To study the immunoreactivity profile of the neuron-associated class III beta-tubulin isotype (beta III) in epithelial lung tumors. DESIGN: One hundred four formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded primary and metastatic lung cancer specimens were immunostained with an anti-beta III mouse monoclonal antibody (TuJ1) and an anti-beta III affinity-purified rabbit antiserum. Paraffin sections from fetal, infantile, and adult nonneoplastic lung tissues were also examined. RESULTS: In the fetal airway epithelium, beta III staining is detected transiently in rare Kulchitsky-like cells from lung tissues corresponding to the pseudoglandular and canalicular but not the saccular or alveolar stages of development. beta III is absent in healthy, hyperplastic, metaplastic, and dysplastic airway epithelium of the adult lung. In contrast, beta III is highly expressed in small cell lung cancer, large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma, and in some non-small cell lung cancers, particularly adenocarcinomas. There is no correlation between expression of beta III and generic neuroendocrine markers, such as chromogranin A and/or synaptophysin, in pulmonary adenocarcinomas. Also, focal beta III staining is present in primary and metastatic adenocarcinomas (to the lung) originating in the colon, prostate, and ovary. beta III is expressed to a much lesser extent in atypical carcinoids and is rarely detectable in typical carcinoids and squamous cell carcinomas of the lung. The distribution of beta III in small cell lung cancer and adenocarcinoma metastases to regional lymph nodes and brain approaches 100% of tumor cells, which is substantially greater than in the primary tumors. CONCLUSIONS: In the context of neuroendocrine lung tumors, beta III immunoreactivity is a molecular signature of high-grade malignant neoplasms (small cell lung cancer and large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma) although its importance in atypical carcinoids must be evaluated further. In addition, beta III may be a useful diagnostic marker in distinguishing between small cell lung cancers and certain non-small cell lung cancers (poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinomas), especially in small biopsy specimens. To our knowledge, beta III is the only tumor biomarker that exhibits a substantially more widespread distribution in poorly differentiated than in better differentiated pulmonary neuroendocrine tumors. However, the significance of beta III phenotypes in non-small cell lung cancer, particularly adenocarcinoma, with respect to neuroendocrine differentiation and prognostic value, requires further evaluation.

Biological markers of risk in nipple aspirate fluid are associated with residual cancer and tumour size.

We previously demonstrated that nipple aspirate fluid (NAF) can be obtained from virtually all non-Asian women between the ages of 30 and 72. The focus of this report is to (1) determine the association of candidate markers of breast cancer risk in NAF obtained from fresh mastectomy specimens with residual breast carcinoma, and (2) evaluate the association of the markers with breast tumour progression. Nipple aspiration was performed on 97 specimens. Cytology, DNA index (including % hypertetraploid cells), cell cycle parameters (S phase fraction, % cells in G2/M), prostate-specific antigen (PSA), epidermal growth factor (EGF), testosterone, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and prostaglandin D synthase (PGDS) were evaluated in NAF for their association with (1) residual ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) or invasive cancer, and (2) pathologic tumour size. NAF was obtained from 99% (96/97) of specimens. Atypical and malignant NAF cytology were significantly associated with residual DCIS or invasive cancer (P = 0.001) and with larger tumours (P = 0.004). One hundred per cent and 88% of subjects with malignant and atypical NAF cytology, respectively, had residual carcinoma. The percentage of cells in G2/M and DNA index were associated both with risk of residual carcinoma (P = 0.01 for each) and larger tumour size (DNA index, P = 0.03; G2/M, P = 0.05), although neither biomarker improved the ability of NAF cytology, to predict residual breast cancer. Higher DNA index was associated with atypical cytology (P = 0.0001). In summary, atypical and malignant NAF cytology are associated with larger tumour size, and are highly predictive of residual carcinoma after needle or excisional biopsy of the breast.

Utilization of fine-needle aspiration cytology and flow cytometry in the diagnosis and subclassification of primary and recurrent lymphoma.

BACKGROUND: The primary diagnosis of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma/leukemia (NHL) by fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is controversial. The authors reviewed their experience with FNA and flow cytometry (FC) to determine the usefulness and limitations of these techniques in the diagnosis of NHL. METHODS: Slides and reports from all lymph node and extranodal FNAs performed during the period July 1993 to January 1997 with a diagnosis of lymphoma or benign lymphoid process were reviewed. Clinical and biopsy follow-up data were recorded. Results were tabulated and the usefulness of cytology was analyzed. RESULTS: There were 100 adequate aspirates from 87 patients. These included 72 cases of NHL, 58 (80%) of which were diagnosed by FNA and FC without the need for histologic sampling (69% of the primary lymphomas and 88% of the recurrent lymphomas). There were 22 aspirates suspicious for lymphoma, 12 equivocal results, and 7 benign diagnoses. Eighty-six percent of malignant FNAs (50 of 58) had flow cytometry (FC) as compared with only 15% (5 of 34) of the suspicious or equivocal FNAs. CONCLUSIONS: FNA is a valuable method for diagnosing and subclassifying NHL, although immunophenotyping by FC is often an essential ancillary test. In our experience, correlating the FNA results with the FC results can eliminate the need for a more invasive surgical biopsy in many cases.

Cellular distribution of retinoic acid receptor-alpha protein in serous adenocarcinomas of ovarian, tubal, and peritoneal origin: comparison with estrogen receptor status.

Retinoids are effective growth modulators of human ovarian carcinoma cell lines. Their effects are mediated by nuclear retinoic acid receptors (RARs) and retinoid X receptors (RXRs), which are transcriptional factors and members of the steroid/thyroid receptor superfamily. To our knowledge, until now, the cellular distribution of RAR proteins in human ovarian tumor specimens is unknown. This study provides new data on the differential cellular localization of RAR alpha protein in 16 serous adenocarcinomas originating from the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and the peritoneum. Using an affinity-purified antiserum specific for RAR alpha and a monoclonal antibody recognizing the full-length estrogen receptor molecule (clone 6F11), we performed immunohistochemistry on frozen tissue sections and examined the relationship between RAR alpha and estrogen receptor protein expression by comparing the percentage of immunostained tumor cells for either receptor. Our findings indicate a strong linear relationship between the percentages of RAR alpha- and estrogen receptor-labeled tumor cells as determined by linear regression analysis (P < 0.005, r = 0.825). A modest inverse relationship was found between the percentage of RAR alpha-positive tumor cells and histological grade, attesting to a differentiation-dependent trend (P < 0.04). No significant relationship was found between RAR alpha-labeled cells and clinical stage (P = 0.139), site of tumor origin (ovaries versus fallopian tubes versus peritoneum) (P = 0.170), and primary versus metastatic lesion (P = 0.561). Thus, serous adenocarcinomas are capable of expressing RAR alpha and estrogen receptor despite high histological grade and advanced stage of neoplastic disease. Compared with the heterogeneous localization of RAR alpha in cancer cells, there was widespread RAR alpha immunoreactivity in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, vascular endothelial cells, and stromal fibroblasts, underscoring the value of immunohistochemistry in the accurate determination of RAR/(RXR) content in tumor specimens.

Prostate-specific antigen production in the female breast: association with progesterone.

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is produced by the female breast. Prior in vitro evidence suggests that PSA expression in breast epithelial cells is regulated by androgens and progestins but not estrogens. The purpose of this study was to determine whether (a) PSA expression in breast nipple aspirate fluid (NAF) and in serum is influenced by progesterone (PG); (b) the ability to obtain NAF decreases with repeated breast aspirations; and (c) PSA in NAF correlates with abnormal NAF cytology. Eight pre- and three postmenopausal women with no breast cancer risk factors were enrolled in a pilot study and had NAF and serum collected every 3-4 days for a month to evaluate the influence of serum PG, luteinizing hormone, estradiol, and follicle-stimulating hormone on PSA in serum and in NAF. NAF was obtained in 99% (112 of 113) of aspiration visits. Median, mean, and peak NAF but not serum PSA levels were higher in pre- than in postmenopausal subjects. NAF PSA levels were associated with the rise or peak in serum PG in seven of eight premenopausal women (seven of seven with a PG surge) and in zero of three postmenopausal women. Considering all 11 women, there was an association between NAF PSA and PG (P = 0.005) but not luteinizing hormone, estradiol, or follicle-stimulating hormone. NAF volume did not significantly change over time. Atypical hyperplasia (9%) and hyperplasia without atypia (36%) were identified in the NAF of a subset of the subjects. Median, mean, and peak levels of NAF PSA (P = 0.05, 0.05, and 0.10, respectively) were higher in subjects with normal versus hyperplastic cytology. PSA production in the breast increases in association with PG. With aspiration every 3-4 days, NAF volume does not significantly decrease over time. NAF cytology and PSA levels in NAF may help identify women at increased breast cancer risk. Changes in biomarkers of breast cancer risk in NAF (including PSA and cytology) may predate mammographic abnormalities. NAF may, therefore, be useful as a breast cancer screening tool for young women who are not recommended to undergo mammography and as an adjunct to screen women who have mammograms performed.

The value of transformed lymphocyte count in subclassification of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma by fine-needle aspiration.

No established criteria exist for predicting lymphoma grade or transformation in cytologic material. We counted transformed lymphocytes in fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy specimens to determine whether the percentage of these cells in the smear could predict the histologic grade, the biologic behavior, or both. The percentage of transformed lymphocytes out of total lymphoid cells was determined on Papanicolaou-stained smears. Afterward, a cytodiagnosis was based on clinical information available at the time of the FNA, cytomorphologic data, and flow cytometry data. Results were correlated with results of examination of the surgical biopsy specimen, clinical behavior of the lymphoma, or both. The percentage of transformed lymphocytes was 10% or less in all low-grade or indolent lymphomas. Aspirates with transformed lymphocyte counts of 20% or greater were aggressive lymphomas. We also report our experience in the diagnosis of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma by FNA using cytomorphologic examination and immunophenotyping by flow cytometry at a cancer referral hospital. This is a preliminary study, and larger series may help establish the ranges of transformed lymphocyte counts that correlate with the lymphoma subtype.

Nipple aspirate fluid: a promising non-invasive method to identify cellular markers of breast cancer risk.

To evaluate the feasibility of nipple aspiration and to identify intermediate markers of breast cancer risk, nipple aspirate fluid (NAF) was collected from 177 subjects using a modified breast pump. The first 33 subjects demonstrated that we could obtain NAF quickly, reliably and repeatedly. Specimens from the remaining 144 subjects were collected to evaluate promising cellular biomarkers. NAF was obtained in 167 out of 177 (94%) subjects overall and in 99% of the 144 most recent subjects. Sufficient NAF was obtained to evaluate cytology in 160 out of 167 (96%) cases and specimens were sufficiently cellular to analyse DNA markers in 53% of cases. Among the last 144 subjects, menopausal status did not influence the ability to obtain NAF. NAF cytology correlated with increased breast cancer risk (P = 0.002). Using computerized image analysis of NAF epithelial cells, DNA index (P = 0.0002), percentage of cells in G2M (P = 0.05) and percentage of cells with hypertetraploidy (P = 0.002) increased as cytology became more abnormal. Our data indicate that NAF can be obtained in essentially all eligible subjects; that breast epithelial cells are evaluable in > 95% of NAF samples for cytology and in over half of NAF samples for DNA index (ploidy) and cell cycle analysis; and that abnormal NAF cytology correlates with increased breast cancer risk. This suggests that biomarkers identified in nipple aspirate fluid may prove useful either as an adjunct to currently accepted breast cancer screening methods, or to evaluate response to a chemopreventive agent.

Primary combined malignant melanoma and ductal carcinoma of the breast. A report of two cases.

BACKGROUND: Tumors consisting of a combination of malignant melanoma and carcinoma are very rare. The authors report two such cases occurring as primary breast tumors. METHODS: The breast tumors were analyzed by histologic, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural techniques. RESULTS: Histologically, the tumors were composed of a closely related admixture of ductal adenocarcinoma and malignant melanoma with abundant melanin pigment. Ductal carcinoma in situ was identified in both cases, confirming their origin in the breast. In both tumors, double-labeling immunohistochemistry showed that the epithelial component was immunoreactive for cytokeratin, the melanoma component was immunoreactive for HMB45, and both components were immunoreactive for S-100 protein. Immunostains for estrogen and progesterone receptors were negative in both tumors. Electron microscopy demonstrated glandular lumens and junctional complexes in the epithelial component and melanosomes and premelanosomes in the melanoma component. In one of the cases, rare tumor cells contained both premelanosomes and desmosomes. CONCLUSIONS: Combined malignant melanoma and carcinoma is a rare tumor. Only a handful of cases have been reported. The authors report two such cases occurring as primary tumors of the breast. The histology of the tumors revealed a closely related admixture of pigmented malignant melanoma and ductal carcinoma. Double-labeling immunohistochemistry showed that cytokeratin and HMB45 were expressed in the tumors, but not within the same cells. The authors propose describing this type of lesion as a single tumor of breast origin with bidirectional differentiation.

Choroidal melanoma in an African-American albino.

PURPOSE: To report the rare occurrence of choroidal melanoma in an African-American albino. METHODS: A 68-year-old African-American man with oculocutaneous albinism developed an amelanotic choroidal mass in his left eye. A transvitreal fine-needle aspiration biopsy was performed to confirm the diagnosis, and the patient was treated with iodine 125 plaque radiotherapy. RESULTS: The cytology of the needle biopsy showed spindle cells with nuclear atypia and prominent nucleoli. The cells showed positive immunoreactivity for HMB-45, supporting the diagnosis of choroidal melanoma. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of a choroidal melanoma occurring in an African-American albino.

Prostate-specific antigen levels in nipple aspirate fluid correlate with breast cancer risk.

Despite the fact that breast cancer is the most common non-cutaneous cancer and a leading cause of cancer deaths in women, accepted markers of breast cancer risk miss up to 40% of these tumors. Moreover, screening methods involving the analysis of tissue or cells are limited by the need for a surgical biopsy. Nipple aspiration is a quick, efficient, noninvasive method to obtain breast epithelial cells, the cells at risk for transformation to carcinoma. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), a protein thought to be specific to the prostate but recently found in a subset of breast tumors, has been correlated with improved survival. The purpose of this study was to measure PSA in a group of women with increasing breast cancer risk (no risk or family history of breast cancer, precancerous mastopathy, and invasive cancer) and determine if PSA correlates with risk. Nipple aspirate fluid was obtained from the intact breast and from surgical specimens using a modified breast pump. PSA was then measured in the fluid using a highly sensitive and specific immunofluorometric procedure. PSA was found at levels ranging from 0-13,423 ng/g of total protein, and there was a significant relationship between PSA level and breast cancer risk (P = 0.001). That is, all women with no risk factors and 90% of those with a family history had high PSA levels, whereas 68% of subjects with precancerous mastopathy or invasive cancer had low PSA levels. PSA was higher in premenopausal subjects (P = 0.002). After adjusting for the effect of menopausal status, there remained a significant association between PSA and breast cancer risk. These findings suggest that PSA in nipple aspirate fluid may be a useful marker of breast cancer risk.